Ndimë në përkthimin e një materiali në Anglisht.

[Neki1]

..ne perkthim prej ang-ne shqip kete material se e kam per provim
Ju lutemi keni miresi se nuk e njoh mire anglishten......

Pricing has traditionally been considered a me-too variable in marketing strategy.
The stable economic conditions that prevailed during the 1960s may be particularly
responsible for the low status ascribed to the pricing variable. Strategically,
the function of pricing has been to provide adequate return on investment. Thus,
the timeworn cost-plus method of pricing and its sophisticated version, return-oninvestment
pricing, have historically been the basis for arriving at price. In the
1970s, however, a variety of events gave a new twist to the task of making pricing
decisions. Double-digit inflation, material shortages, the high cost of money, consumerism,
and Post-price controls behavior all made pricing important. Since then
pricing continues to play a key role in formulating marketing strategy.
Despite the importance attached to it, effective pricing is not an easy task,
even under the most favorable conditions. A large number of internal and external
variables must be studied systematically before price can be set. For example,
thereactions of a competitor often stand out as an important consideration in
developing pricing strategy. Simply knowing that a competitor has a lower price
is insufficient; a price strategist must know how much flexibility a competitor has
in further lowering price. This presupposes a knowledge of the competitor’s cost
structure. In the dynamics of today’s environment, however, where unexpected
economic changes can render cost and revenue projections obsolete as soon as
they are developed, pricing strategy is much more difficult to formulate.
This chapter provides a composite of pricingstrategies. Each strategy is
examined for its underlying assumptions and relevance in specific situations. The
application of different strategies is illustrated with examples from pricing literature.
The appendix at the end of this chapter summarizes each strategy by giving its definition, objectives, requirements, and expected results

[Neki1]

kam shume faqe dhe nuk po mundemi me i derguar

[Neki1]

ose te me tregoni ca linqe si tekst te perkthej ju lutem te me delni ne ndihme

[^SHIU^]

Cmimi tradicionalisht ka qene nje ndryshore nga une tek ... ne strategjite e marketingut. Situata e qendrueshme ekonomike gjate viteve 60' mund te kete qene pergjegjese per nenvleresimin e ndryshores "Cmim". Strategjikisht, funksioni i cmimit ka qene qe te jap nje fitim te pershtatshem per nje investim. Metoda e vjeter "costo plus" dhe metoda me e sofistikuar e "% e fitimit ne investim" kane qene bazat per te arritur ne cmimin e nje investimi.
Ne vitet 70' megjithate nje sere evenimentesh i dhane nje komplikim procesit te vendosjes se cmimit. Inflacioni dyshifror, mungesa e materialit, kostoja e larte e parave, konsumatorizmi dhe sjellja e "kontrolluesve pas venies se cmimit", te gjitha keto e bene procesin e caktimit te cmimit te rendesishem. Qe nga ajo kohe cmimi ka nje rol te rendesishem ne formulimin e strategjive te marketingut. Megjithate vendosja e cmimint nuk eshte nje pune e lehte edhe ne kushtet me te favorshme. Nje numer i madh ndryshoresh te brendshem dhe te jashtem duhet te studiohen perpara se te vendoset nje cmim. Psh. veprimet e konkurences dallohen si nje faktor i rendesishem per te vendosur nje strategji cmimi. Thjesht te dish se nje konkurent tjeter ofron cmime me te uleta nuk mjafton, nje strateg cmimi duhet te dije dhe sa fleksibilitet ka konkurenca per ti ulur akoma me shume cmimet. Kjo presupozon nje njohje te stuktures se kostos se konkurences. Megjithate ne ditet e sotme ku ndryshimet ekonomike mund ti bejne projeksionet e kostos dhe fitimit menjehere te pavlehshme, strategjia e cmimit behet akoma me e komplikuar. Ky kapitull ju njeh me komponent te ndryshem te strategjise se vendosjes se cmimit. Cdo strategji analizohet bazuar ne apriorit e veta dhe rendesine e situatave te vecanta. Aplikimet e strategjive te ndryshme ilustrohen me shembuj nga literatura te ndryshme. Apendixi i ketij kapitulli ju jep nje permbledhje te perkufizimeve, qellimeve, kerkesat dhe rezultatet qe priten.

[^SHIU^]

U mundova ta perktheja ne sa me shqip te ishte e mundur.

[Neki1]

Ju pershendes per kontributin e juaj
^Shiu^
flm shume per kete perkthim,"per kete ndihmes shume shume te vlefshem "por kam shume faqe qe me duhet te perkthej....po mundohem vete

P.s Nese keni mundesi dhe te tjeret antare te me ndihmoni ne perkthime qe do te ju paraqes me vone ne faqe ju lutlem te me dilni ne ndihme se me Dt. 8 kam me dorezuar materialin ddhe berjen e punimit semenarik.........flm shume per mire kuptim

[Neki1]

REVIEW OF PRICING FACTORS
Basically, a pricer needs to review four factors to arrive at a price: pricing objectives,
cost, competition, and demand. This section briefly reviews these factors,
which underlie every pricing strategy alternative.
411
15
Broadly speaking, pricing objectives can be either profit oriented or volume oriented.
The profit-oriented objective may be defined either in terms of desired net
profit percentage or as a target return on investment. The latter objective has been
more popular among large corporations. The volume-oriented objective may be
stated as the percentage of market share that the firm would like to achieve.
Alternatively, it may simply be stated as the desired sales growth rate. Many
firms also consider the maintenance of a stable price as a pricing goal. Particularly
in cyclical industries, price stability helps to sustain the confidence of customers
and thus keeps operations running smoothly through peaks and valleys.
For many firms, there can be pricing objectives other than those of profitability
and volume, as shown in Exhibit 15-1. Each firm should evaluate different
objectives and choose its own priorities in the context of the pricing problems
that it may be facing. The following list contains illustrations of typical pricing
problems:
1. Decline in sales.
2. Higher or lower prices than competitors.
3. Excessive pressure on middlemen to generate sales.
4. Imbalance in product line prices.
5. Distortion vis-à-vis the offering in the customer’s perceptions of the firm’s price.
6. Frequent changes in price without any relationship to environmental realities.
410 PART 6 Marketing Strategies
Pricing Objectives
EXHIBIT 15-1
Potential Pricing Objectives
1. Maximum long-run profits
2. Maximum short-run profits
3. Growth
4. Stabilize market
5. Desensitize customers to price
6. Maintain price-leadership arrangement
7. Discourage entrants
8. Speed exit of marginal firms
9. Avoid government investigation and control
10. Maintain loyalty of middlemen and get their sales support
11. Avoid demands for “more” from suppliers
12. Enhance image of firm and its offerings
13. Be regarded as “fair” by customers (ultimate)
14. Create interest and excitement about the item
15. Be considered trustworthy and reliable by rivals
16. Help in the sale of weak items in the line
17. Discourage others from cutting prices
18. Make a product “visible”
19. “Spoil market” to obtain high price for sale of business
20. Build traffic
Source: Alfred R. Oxenfeldt, “A Decision-Making Structure for Price Decisions,” Journal of Marketing
(January 1973): 50. Reprinted by permission of the American Marketing Association.
412 Pricing Strategies
These problems suggest that a firm may have more than one pricing objective,
even though these objectives may not be articulated as such. Essentially, pricing
objectives deal directly or indirectly with three areas: profit (setting a high
enough price to enable the company to earn an adequate margin for profit and
reinvestment), competition (setting a low enough price to discourage competitors
from adding capacity), and market share (setting a price below competition to
gain market share).
As an example of pricing objectives, consider the goals that Apple Computer
set for Macintosh:1
1. To make the product affordable and a good value for most college students.
2. To get certain target market segments to see the Macintosh as a better value than
the IBM PC.
3. To encourage at least 90 percent of all Apple retailers to carry the Macintosh
while providing a strong selling effort.
4. To accomplish all this within 18 months.
Fixed and variable costs are the major concerns of a pricer. In addition, the pricer
may sometimes need to consider other types of costs, such as out-of-pocket costs,
incremental costs, opportunity costs, controllable costs, and replacement costs.
To study the impact of costs on pricing strategy, the following three relationships
may be considered: (a) the ratio of fixed costs to variable costs, (b) the
economies of scale available to a firm, and (c) the cost structure of a firm vis-à-vis
competitors. If the fixed costs of a company in comparison to its variable costs
form a high proportion of its total costs, adding sales volume will be a great help
in increasing earnings. Consider, for example, the case of the airlines, whose fixed
costs are as high as 60 to 70 percent of total costs. Once fixed costs are recovered,
any additional tickets sold add greatly to earnings. Such an industry is called volume
sensitive. There are some industries, such as the consumer electronics industry,
where variable costs constitute a higher proportion of total costs than do fixed
costs. Such industries are price sensitive because even a small increase in price
adds much to earnings.
If the economies of scale obtainable from a company’s operations are substantial,
the firm should plan to expand market share and, with respect to longterm
prices, take expected declines in costs into account. Alternatively, if
operations are expected to produce a decline in costs, then prices may be lowered
in the long run to gain higher market share.
If a manufacturer is a low-cost producer relative to its competitors, it will
earn additional profits by maintaining prices at competitive levels. The additional
profits can be used to promote the product aggressively and increase the
overall market share of the business. If, however, the costs of a manufacturer are
high compared to those of its competitors, the manufacturer is in no position to
reduce prices because that tactic may lead to a price war that it would most
likely lose.
Different elements of cost must be differently related in setting price. Exhibit
15-2 shows, for example, how computations of full cost, incremental cost, and
CHAPTER

[Neki1]

Marketing Strategies
EXHIBIT 15-2
Effect of Costs on Pricing
Cost Pricing
Costs Product A Product B
Labor (L) $ 80 $120
Material (M) 160 80
Overhead (O) 40 80
Full cost (L + M + O) 280 280
Incremental cost (L + M) 240 200
Conversion cost (L + O) 120 200
Product Line Pricing
Markup (M’) Product A Product B
Full-Cost Pricing
P = FC + (M’)FC 20% $336 $336
Incremental-Cost Pricing
P = (L + M) + M’(L + M) 40% 336 280
Conversion-Cost Pricing
P = (L + O) + M’(L + O) 180% 336 560
conversion cost may vary and how these costs affect product line prices. Exhibit
15-3 shows the procedure followed for setting target-return pricing.
Exhibit 15-4 shows the competitive information needed to formulate a pricing
strategy. The information may be analyzed with reference to these competitive
characteristics: number of firms in the industry, relative size of different members
of the industry, product differentiation, and ease of entry.

[Neki1]

EXHIBIT 15-4
Competitive Information Needed for Pricing Strategy
1. Published competitive price lists and advertising
2. Competitive reaction to price moves in the past
3. Timing of competitors’ price changes and initiating factors
4. Information on competitors’ special campaigns
5. Competitive product line comparison
6. Assumptions about competitors’ pricing/marketing objectives
7. Competitors’ reported financial performance
8. Estimates of competitors’ costs—fixed and variable
9. Expected pricing retaliation
10. Analysis of competitors’ capacity to retaliate
11. Financial viability of engaging in price war
12. Strategic posture of competitors
13. Overall competitive aggressiveness


In an industry where there is only one firm, there is no competitive activity.
The firm is free to set any price, subject to constraints imposed by law. As an
Illinois Bell executive said about pricing (before the AT&T split): “All we had to do
was determine our costs, and then we would go to the commission—the Illinois
Commerce Commission, and they would give us the allowable rate of return.”2
Conversely, in an industry comprising a large number of active firms, competition
is fierce. Fierce competition limits the discretion of a firm in setting price. Where
there are a few firms manufacturing an undifferentiated product (such as in the
steel industry), only the industry leader may have the discretion to change prices.
Other industry members will tend to follow the leader in setting price.
The firm with a large market share is in a position to initiate price changes
without worrying about competitors’ reactions. Presumably, a competitor with a
large market share has the lowest costs. The firm can, therefore, keep its prices
low, thus discouraging other members of the industry from adding capacity, and
further its cost advantage in a growing market.
If a firm operates in an industry that has opportunities for product differentiation,
it can exert some control over pricing even if the firm is small and competitors
are many. This latitude concerning price may occur if customers perceive
one brand to be different from competing brands: whether the difference is real or
imaginary, customers do not object to paying a higher price for preferred brands.
To establish product differentiation of a brand in the minds of consumers, companies
spend heavily for promotion. Product differentiation, however, offers an
opportunity to control prices only within a certain range.
In an industry that is easy to enter, the price setter has less discretion in establishing
prices; if there are barriers to market entry, however, a firm already in the
industry has greater control over prices. Barriers to entry may take any of the following

[xfiles]

O shoku po nese nuk je i zoti ti perkthesh vete keto materiale atehere pse shkon kot ne shkolle?
Te pakten ne seminar ne fund te faqes sheno "Kete material ma ka perkthyer ^SHIU^".